CHAPTER 1 Introduction 1 Historical Perspective 1 Contemporary Perspective 2 Growth and Spread of Multinational Operations 4 Financial Innovation 9 Global Competition 10 Cross-Border Mergers and Acquisitions 11 Internationalization of Capital Markets 12 Americas 13 Western Europe 14 Asia 15 Cross-Border Equity Listing and Issuance 15 Where Are We? 16 Learning Objectives 17 Appendix 1-1 'Changes in Financial Sector Policy in 34 Nations, 1973-1996 21 Appendix 1-2 Stock Exchange Web Sites 24 Appendix 1-3 Financial Statements and Selected Notes from the Annual Report of INFOSYS 26 CHAPTER 2 Development and Classification 27 Development 27 Classification 33 Four Approaches to Accounting Development 33 Legal Systems: Common Law vs. Code Law Accounting 34 Practice Systems: Fair Presentation vs. Legal Compliance Accounting 35 CHAPTER 3 Comparative Accounting: Europe 37 Some Observations about Accounting Standards and Practice 38 IFRS in the European Union 39 Five National Financial Accounting Systems 41 France 41 Germany 46 Czech Republic 51 The Netherlands 54 United Kingdom 58 CHAPTER 4 Comparative Accounting: The Americas and Asia 64 Five National Financial Accounting Systems 65 United States 65 Mexico 70 Japan 74 China 78 India 83 CHAPTER 5 Reporting and Disclosure 88 Development of Disclosure 88 Voluntary Disclosure 89 Regulatory Disclosure Requirements 90 The US. SEC Financial Reporting Debate 91 Reporting and Disclosure Practices 92 Disclosures of Forward-Looking Information 93 Segment Disclosures 94 Social Responsibility Reporting 96 Special Disclosures for Nondomestic Financial Statement Users and Accounting Principles Used 111 Corporate Governance Disclosures 111 lnternet Business Reporting and Disclosure 120 Annual Report Disclosures in Emerging-Market Countries 121 Implications for Financial Statement Users and Managers 122 CHAPTER 6 Foreign Currency Translation 124 Results of Operations 124 Reasons for Translation 127 BackgrOund and Terminology 127 The Problem 130 Financial Statement Effects of Alternative Translation Rates 130 Foreign Currency Transactions 132 Single- Transaction Perspective 134 Two- Transaction Perspective 134 Foreign Currency Translation 135 Multiple-Rate Methods 136 Financial Statement Effects 138 Which Is Best? 140 Appropriate Current Rate 142 Translation Gains and Losses 142 Where Are We? 144 Translation Accounting Development 144 Pre-1965 144 1965-1975 144 1975-1981 145 1981-Present 145 Features of Standard No. 52/International Accounting Standard 21 145 Translation When Local Currency Is the Functional Currency 146 Translation When the Parent Currency Is the Functional Currency 146 Translation When Foreign Currency Is the Functional Currency 146 Measurement Issues 148 Reporting Perspective 148 What Happened to Historical Cost? 149 Concept of lncome 149 Managed Earnings 149 Foreign Currency Translation and Inflation 150 Foreign Currency Translation Elsewhere 151 Appendix 6-1 Translation and Remeasurement Under FAS No. 52 151 CHAPTER 7 Financial Reporting and Changing Prices 157 Changing Prices Defined 159 Why Are Financial Statements Potentially Misleading During Periods of Changing Prices? 162 Types of Inflation Adjustments 163 General Price-Level Adjustments 163 Price Indexes 163 Current-Cost Adjustments 167 General Price-Level Adjusted Current Costs 168 National Perspectives On Inflation Accounting 170 United States 170 United Kingdom 171 Brazil 173 International Accounting Standards Board 176 Inflation Issues 177 Inflation Gains and Losses 177 Holding Gains and Losses 178 Foreign Inflation 178 Avoiding the Double-Dip 179 Appendix 7-1 Accounting for Foreign Inflation: A Case Analysis 181 CHAPTER 8 Global Accounting and Auditing Standards 184 A Survey of International Convergence 184 Advantages of International Convergence 184 Criticisms of International Standards 186 Reconciliation and Mutual Recognition I87 Evaluation 187 Some Significant Events in the History of International Accounting Standard Setting 188 Overview of Major International Organizations Promoting Accounting Convergence 189 International Accounting Standards Board 192 1ASC's Core Standards and the IOSCO Agreement 193 The New IASB Structure 194 Recognition and Support for the IASB 196 US. Securities and Exchange Commission Response to IFRS 196 European Union (EU) 197 Fourth, Seventh, and Eighth Directives 197 Have EU Harmonization Efforts Been Successful? 198 The EU's New Approach and the Integration of European Financial Markets 199 International Organization of Securities Commissions (IOSCO) 200